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Managing Fleas Without Poisons



 
 
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Old October 1st 09, 01:55 PM posted to rec.pets.dogs.health
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Default Managing Fleas Without Poisons

Journal of Pesticide Reform v.17, n.3 Fall97

This article was written
cooperatively by many NCAP staff members. It could not have been written
without the assistance of interns Iris Porter and Dietra Lynn.

Northwest
Coalition For Alternatives To Pesticides/NCAP

PO Box 1393, Eugene Oregon 97440/541-344-5044

Flea control insecticides are a hazardous
group of chemicals. Looking at twenty flea control chemicals, over
two-thirds
are neurotoxic, and almost that many have caused reproductive problems in
laboratory tests. Half of the chemicals are classified as carcinogens by
EPA,
or have been associated with increased cancer risks in epidemiological or
laboratory studies. A quarter of them are known to cause genetic damage
in at
least one test. Almost all have environmental concerns. Children and
veterinarians, as well as our rivers and estuaries, are impacted by these
chemicals.


These hazards are unnecessary. Vigilance and
preventive techniques allow most pet owners to keep flea populations under
control without using poisons.


Key nonchemical techniques include frequent
vacuuming of areas that pets use in order to remove flea eggs and larvae,
washing pet bedding regularly (also to remove eggs and larvae), and combing
pets with a flea comb to remove adult fleas. Insecticide-free flea traps and
flea-killing nematodes are other useful options. Regular use of these
techniques means that we can have flea-free pets, health for ourselves
and our
families, and a healthy environment.


Fleas can be an enormous problem for the 110
million dogs and cats living in the United States, as well as for their
owners.1 During summer months, half the money spent at veterinary clinics is
flea related.2 The American Pet Product Manufacturing Association estimates
that seven out of ten dog owners annually purchase flea and tick products,
primarily flea collars and shampoos.3


While these pet owners may feel that they
are making their pets more comfortable, they may actually be poisoning their
pets and themselves. However, these poisons are not necessary. The good news
for pet owners is that with early vigilance and preventive techniques, fleas
can be controlled effectively without insecticides.


Flea Control Products and
Their Hazards


Many flea control pesticides have
significant hazards. In Table 1
we have outlined the effects of twenty ingredients in flea control products.
The chart uses data from published studies, as well as information from the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other government agencies.
(Complete references are given on page 10.)


The chart is dense and not easy to read, but
the stark conclusions from studying the chart are straightforward. In
general,
flea control insecticides are a hazardous group. Over two-thirds of the
chemicals in the table are neurotoxic, and almost that many have caused
reproductive problems in laboratory tests. Half of the chemicals are
classified
as carcinogens by EPA, or have been associated with increased cancer
risks in
epidemiological or laboratory studies. A quarter of them are known to cause
genetic damage in at least one test. Almost all have environmental concerns.


If you are considering the use of a flea
pesticide, please carefully read the section of the chart about that
chemical
before you make your decision. If you would like more detailed information
about any of the chemicals, contact NCAP.


Impacts of Flea Pesticides
on Children


All of the hazards described in Table 1 take
on special urgency because children can be exposed to these chemicals
when they
are used to kill fleas. In fact, children are more heavily exposed to
pesticides and are more seriously impacted than adults.


Per pound of body weight, children breathe
more air, drink more water, and eat more food than adults. This means
that the
amount of toxic chemicals a child receives per pound of body weight is
higher.4


In addition, children are more sensitive
because they are growing and some of their organs are still developing.4
Children are also more susceptible because they are more likely to come into
contact with materials that may be contaminated, such as carpets that
have been
treated for fleas.5


One of the tools used by researchers to
study the impacts of home pesticides on children is "epidemiology,"
associating real-life exposures with disease. Consider the findings of these
studies:



A study in
Los Angeles County, California, found a significant increased risk of
leukemia in children whose parents used pesticides in the home or the
garden.6
A study of
children with brain and other cancers in Baltimore, Maryland, found
that
these children were more likely to have been exposed to insecticides in
the home.7
Another
study in Denver, Colorado, found that home pesticides may be associated
with some childhood cancers.8
In
Missouri, childhood brain cancer was associated with use of
pesticides to
control household pests; flea collars on pets were identified as a risk
factor.9


In addition to these epidemiological
studies, researchers evaluating specific flea control chemicals in the
laboratory have found problems that are significant for children's health.


For example, a commonly used chemical in
flea control products is chlorpyrifos. Laboratory tests have suggested that
infants are more susceptible to chlorpyrifos than adults. In newborn
rats, the
highest dose of chlorpyrifos without visible effects was only one-sixth that
measured in adult rats.10 Another test showed that chlorpyrifos is more
easily
absorbed through the skin of young rats than that of adult rats.11 A third
chlorpyrifos study looked at the air residues of this chemical following
treatment. The study showed that carpets are a source of chlorpyrifos vapors
following application, particularly for children. Air concentrations
were up to
5 times higher in the infant breathing zone (1 foot above the carpet)
than in
the adult breathing zone (3-1/2 feet above the carpet).5


Together, these studies indicate that
children are especially vulnerable to pesticides. This is borne out by
statistics from poison control centers. Well over half of all reported
pesticide poisonings occur in children under the age of 6!12


Impacts of Flea Pesticides
on Vets


During the summer months, half of the money
spent at veterinary clinics is flea related.2 This means that veterinarians,
their assistants, and other pet handlers are exposed to chemicals used
in flea
control products. Studies of pet handlers demonstrate that exposure to these
chemicals is having an impact:



The use of
carbaryl-containing flea control products was associated with increased
frequencies of diarrhea, coughing, difficult breathing and
congestion in
one study of pet handlers. These are all typical symptoms of
poisoning by
pesticides in carbaryl's chemical family.13
A
telephone survey of pet handlers who frequently used flea-dip products
found that half of the respondents had symptoms of organophosphate
exposure including headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue, and
dermatitis.14


Impacts of Flea Pesticides
on Water


California's Central Contra Costa Sanitary
District has found flea pesticides in the wastewater from homes,
kennels, and
pet groomers. The district calculated that only two applications of
chlorpyrifos flea products per day would cause the effluent from their water
treatment plant to be toxic to aquatic animals.15


Are Flea Insecticides
Effective?


Despite tremendous expenditures on flea
control insecticides, many people are not satisfied. Why? Because many
treatments are simply not effective.


For example, flea collars emit continuous
vapors into the air in your home and around your pet. However, these
vapors may
not affect fleas at the tail end of your pet and may not affect flea
eggs. Many
people rely on foggers to control fleas in their homes. However, foggers not
only release a lot of poison into your home, they also are not effective
against flea larvae and eggs. Consider what the 1995 Pacific Northwest
Insect
Control Handbook had to say about the effectiveness and safety of highly
promoted foggers:


"Aerosol space foggers have received
extensive media publicity with claims of virtual eradication of household
pests. These foggers seem to offer a simple solution to serious problems but
rarely are effective except to exposed insect stages. Exposed adult
fleas (few
are truly exposed) may be killed but eggs and larvae are not exposed and,
except when the fogger has a persistent ingredient, there is no residual
toxicant to contact the insect when it is vulnerable. What really
happens when
foggers are used is that all interior home surfaces - walls, ceilings,
floors,
and furnishings, (most of which never harbor insects) - are coated with
a toxic
residue."16


The Good News: Least Toxic
Flea Control


None of the hazards of flea control
chemicals is necessary. By understanding the flea's life cycle and targeting
your management activities, an effective and least-toxic flea control
program
is possible.


Flea Biology


The most common and annoying species of flea
is the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis).
Feasting on dogs, cats and humans, the cat flea is responsible for most flea
bites and allergies in humans and pets.17,18


Fleas go through four stages of development:
egg, larva, pupa and adult. Warm, moist conditions (65-80oF and 70 percent
relative humidity) are optimal for flea hatching and development. A
female can
lay up to 800 eggs in her lifetime. Eggs are laid both on and off the pet.
Those laid on the pet later fall off and accumulate on the floor, in
cracks, on
furniture, and in dust.17


Flea development is directly tied to
external conditions making the flea a resilient pest. In 2 to 12 days
the eggs
hatch into hairy wormlike larvae. The larval stage generally lasts 1 to 3
weeks, but under unfavorable conditions it can last up to 200 days. The
larvae
then spin a cocoon and transform into pupae.17


Pupae remain dormant until they detect a
host (by warmth and vibrations) and hatch out as adults. The pupal stage
lasts
from 1-2 weeks under favorable conditions but can extend to nearly a year.
After emerging, the adult fleas immediately seek a blood meal. Adults
can live
1 to 2 months without a meal and can survive 7 to 8 months with just one
meal.17


The wide fluctuation in duration of the
various stages accounts for the sudden emergence of massive numbers of
fleas in
"flea season." They've actually been there all along, waiting for
optimal temperature and humidity conditions to occur before maturing en
masse.


Managing the Fleas'
Environment





Are
Flea Control Products Safe?
Many pet owners
feel that if they buy a flea control product in a grocery store it must be
safe. Or, if they have their homes treated by a "professional"
applicator or use products recommended by their veterinarians, the
products
must be safe. In fact, researchers found that many pet owners were so
complacent about pesticide hazards that even during pregnancy and the
first 6
months of a new child's life parents "failed to recognize and reduce the
pervasive exposures associated with the use of no-pest-strips and flea
collars." 1 To dispel this myth of safety, it is crucial to understand a
few points about how pesticides work and how they get on the market.
First, pesticides
are poisons; they are primarily intended to kill living organisms. Many
pesticides affect a broad range of living things. For example,
organophosphate and carbamate compounds (two classes of pesticides
commonly
used for flea control) act on the nervous system of insects and mammals in
the same manner.2 When you use these chemicals you can affect not only
fleas,
but your pet and yourself.
Second, the law
that regulates pesticides - the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) - does not use safety as the fundamental basis for
allowing a pesticide on the market. FIFRA is based on a risk-benefit
standard. This allows pesticides to be used even if they pose hazards to
humans and the environment so long as the benefits outweigh the
hazards.3 Any
health or environmental hazards can be acceptable if the estimated
economic
benefits are large.
Third, many
products on the market today do not meet current standards for health and
safety testing. These products were already registered when FIFRA's
testing
requirements were passed in 1972. While the law was amended in 1988 to set
deadlines for bringing the testing up to current standards, the deadlines
have not been met.4 This means that we have limited information on
some older
pesticides.
Fourth, pesticide
products are made up of more than one chemical. Most pesticides are
composed
of "active" ingredient(s) , whose identity must be listed on the
label, and "inert" ingredients whose identities most manufacturers
claim are trade secrets. The term "inert" is misleading, because these
secret ingredients are neither biologically, chemically, nor
toxicologically
inactive. Much of the testing required for EPA registration is done on the
active ingredient only.5 Therefore, adverse effects of the pesticide
as it is
used are untested and unknown.
1. Davis, J.R.,
R.C. Brownson, and R. Garcia. 1992. Family pesticide use in the home,
garden,
orchard, and yard. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22:260-266.
2. Cremlyn, R.J.
1991. Agrochemicals: Preparation and mode of action. Chichester, UK: John
Wiley & Sons. Pp.123 and 149.
3. Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act 2(bb).
4. U.S. EPA.
Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1992. Pesticide reregistration.
Washington,
D.C., May. Pp.2-3.
5. U.S. EPA. 1987.
Inert ingredients in pesticide products; Policy statement. Fed. Reg.
52(77):13305, Apr. 22.






At any given time, fleas may be present in
any or all four life cycle stages. Thus an effective program must
address the
flea at all four stages of development. Vacuuming areas your pet frequents,
bathing your pet, washing pet bedding, and combing for fleas can effectively
keep your flea population at a tolerable level. It is important to recognize
that as the flea population rises and falls, physical control measures
must be
adjusted accordingly.


Fleas tend to accumulate where pets sleep.
If possible, establish a single, regular sleeping place with bedding that is
easily removable and washable. Wash bedding about once a week to break
up the
flea life cycle. A towel or blanket makes excellent bedding. Pick
bedding up by
the four corners so that eggs and larvae aren't scattered throughout the
area.17,19


Pet access to hard-to-clean areas like
basements and attics must be restricted. Access to bedrooms where a flea
infestation would be particularly annoying can also be limited. Since pets
bring in fleas from outside, consider the possibility of having either an
inside or an outside pet.


If your pet does go in and out of the house,
keep your lawn cut short and either very dry or very wet. Fleas don't do
well
in either extreme.17,19


Regularly use a flea comb on your pet. The
fleas are caught in the closely spaced tines of the comb and can be flicked
into a container of soapy water where they drown. Dish soap works well.
Don't
crush fleas with your fingers since they carry parasites and disease
organisms.20


Many pets actually come to enjoy this
grooming process. You can monitor the extent of your flea population by
keeping
a count of fleas captured during these combing sessions. A rising flea count
will herald an increasing flea population in time for you to take preventive
measures. Flea combs come in a variety of sizes and are available in
most pet
supply stores.


Bathe your pet. It's not necessary to use
insecticidal shampoos; most soaps will kill fleas. Read the label;
frequently
all the ingredients are listed. Test your favorite shampoo or soap by
mixing it
with water and dropping a few fleas from your flea comb into it. Fleas
should
die within seconds. Some soaps are strong desiccants so be sure to
monitor your
pet's hair and skin. Change products if your pet's skin becomes dry and
itchy.


Vacuuming floors, carpets, furniture,
crevices and cracks once a week is an excellent means of controlling the
flea
population. Vacuuming is especially effective at picking adults and
eggs. The
vibration from vacuuming can result in the emergence of adult fleas from the
pupal stage. The newly hatched fleas are vacuumed up prior to ever
meeting you
or your pet. However, vacuuming is not particularly effective in
removing the
flea larvae in carpeting. Larvae wrap themselves around the base of carpet
fibers, and hang on.17


Vacuum more frequently if the flea
population increases, every two or three days during peak season. After
vacuuming, the bag must be dealt with immediately or the fleas will
escape and
reinfest the area. The bag can be thrown away, burned or placed in a sealed
black plastic bag in the freezer or in the sun for several days. A water
vacuum
eliminates the need to deal with the vacuum cleaner bag.


If you have a high level flea infestation,
having your carpets professionally steam-cleaned may be worth the
investment.
Steam-cleaning kills fleas in the adult and larval stages. However, the
steam
can trigger the hatching of the remaining flea eggs a few days later.


Raising temperatures within a structure can
kill the fleas. Isothermics Inc., of Anaheim, California, sells a
heating unit
that raises the temperature in a structure to the point where it kills fleas
and other insects (termites, cockroaches and ants) without damaging the
house
or its contents. This technology is available only to pest control
operators.17


Flea Traps


Flea population explosions tend to occur
when their food sources are on vacation. How often have you and your pet
come
home from a relaxing trip only to be assaulted by a horde of ravenous fleas?
You might want to try leaving behind a flea trap. Traps can also reduce flea
populations when used routinely in rooms where flea populations are high.













A vacuum cleaner and a flea comb are

the two most important elements of a

nonchemical flea management tool kit.





To make your own, hang a light bulb six to
twelve inches above a pan of soapy water or a sticky trap. The warmth of the
bulb will attract fleas, especially if no other warm-blooded animals are
around.19


Flea traps are also available commercially.
Traps with a flickering, yellow-green light source are most effective.21
They
are available under the brand name Ultralight, manufactured by Whitmire
Research. (St. Louis, MO.; 800/325- 3668).


Biological Controls


Predatory nematodes that prey on flea larvae
and pupae as they are developing in soil are available commercially. The
nematodes are mixed with water and watered into lawns to reduce outdoor flea
populations. Strong reductions in flea populations are possible if
temperature
and humidity conditions allow the nematodes to thrive.22 Nematodes are
available from Gardens Alive! (812/537-8650) and other garden supply stores.


Least-toxic Chemical
Control Measures


NCAP does not recommend the use of any
chemicals for flea control. However, we recognize that some pet owners
will be
in a situation where they feel they cannot avoid the use of an
insecticide. The
following chemicals should be considered if you must choose this type of
flea
control. For a brief summary of the health and environmental hazards
associated
with these pesticides, see the chart on pages 8 and 9.


Desiccating dusts, such as diatomaceous
earth and silica aerogels, kill fleas by drying them out, causing the
insect to
lose moisture and eventually die. Always wear goggles and a dust mask during
application to avoid breathing in desiccating dusts. Cover or remove
electronic
equipment that can be damaged by dust. People with respiratory problems
should
not use diatomaceous earth. Be sure not to use glassified diatomaceous earth
manufactured for use in swimming pool filters; it causes the lung disease
silicosis.20


Diatomaceous earth
can be lightly applied to pets and their bedding. Work it in using a
brush or
broom. Lightly vacuum afterwards to remove loose dust.19,20


Silica aerogel,
despite its misleading name, is in fact another desiccating dust that
effectively kills fleas. Silica gel can be applied to the pet and to
bedding.17


Lufenuron
is a drug that prevents a new generation of fleas from developing. It is an
insect growth regulator that is passed from the pet's blood to the flea.


Adult fleas feeding on a pet given lufenuron
will not be killed, but they will not lay eggs that can successfully
develop.
23,24 Although it has some toxicological problems for pets, its primary
advantage is that only the pet with the flea problem is exposed to the
chemical
control.


Flea Repellents


Cedar chips are widely known as a
flea-repellent bedding material. However, over time the wood chips lose
their
odor and the bedding is difficult to vacuum or wash effectively. The bed
becomes a safe haven for flea larvae. If you choose to use cedar chip
bedding,
replace it (or freshen with cedar oil) when the aroma wears off. A
removable,
washable cover is a good idea.


Fed to your pet, vitamin B1 (found in
nutritional yeast) is a flea repellent. However, it should be given only in
small doses, 1/2 teaspoon for a small cat and 2 to 3 teaspoons for large
dogs,
since large amounts can result in gas and cramps. A better source of
vitamin B1
for pets is Bcomplex vitamins at a dosage of 1/4 to 1/2 of a
10-milligram pill
per day. Chopped garlic cloves added to your pet's food also can repel
fleas.
One large clove a day is recommended for a large dog.20,25


In general, a healthy, well-nourished pet is
able to withstand and repel flea attacks.20,25


References


1. American
Veterinary Medical Association. 1993. U.S. Pet Ownership and Demographics
Sourcebook. Center for Information Management, AVMA, 1931 North Meacham
Road,
Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173.

2. PRNewswire. 1994.
Vets wage war on fleas...naturally, June 28.

3. American Pet
Product Manufacturer's Association. 1994. National pet owners survey.
Scarsdale, NY.

4. National Research
Council. Committee on Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. 1993.
Pesticides in the diets of infants and children. Washington, D.C. National
Academy Press.

5. Fenske, R.A. et
al. 1990. Potential exposure and health risks of infants following indoor
residential pesticide applications. Am. J. Public Health 80(6):689-693.

6. Lowengart, R.A.,
et al. 1987. Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home
exposures.
J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 79(1):39-46.

7. Gold, E., et al.
1979. Risk factors for brain tumors in children. Amer. J. Epidemiol.
109(3):309- 319.

8. Leiss, J.K. and
D.A. Savitz. 1995. Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: A case-control
study. Am. J. Public Health 85(2):249-252.

9. Davis, J.R., R.C.
Brownson, and R. Garcia. 1992. Family pesticide use in the home, garden,
orchard, and yard. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22:260-266.

10. Pope, C.N. et
al. 1991. Comparison of in vivo cholinesterase inhibition in neonatal
and adult
rats by three organophosphorothioate insecticides. Toxicol. 68:51-61.

11. Shah, P.V. et
al. 1987. Comparison of the penetration of 14 pesticides through the skin of
young and adult rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 21:353-366.

12. Blondell, J.
1993. Human pesticide exposures reported to poison control centers for 1990,
1991, and 1992. Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Substances. Health Effects Division.

13. Ames, R.G. et
al. 1989. Health symptoms and occupational exposure to flea control products
among California pet handlers. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 50(9):466-472.

14. Rosenberg, J.
and S.G. Quenon. 1988. Organophosphate toxicity associated with flea dip
products - California. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Report 37(21)329-330, 335-336.

15. Brandenburg, B.
1995-96. Central San's experience with diazinon and chlorpyrifos. Regional
Monitoring News 2(1):1,10,11.

16. Fisher, G. et
al. 1995. Pacific Northwest insect control handbook. Corvallis, OR: Oregon
State University.

17. Olkowski, W., S.
Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1991. Common-sense pest control: Least-toxic
solutions
for your home, garden, pets and community. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press.

18. Borror, D., D.
DeLong, and C. Triplehorn. 1976. An introduction to the study of
insects. New
York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

19. Stein, D. 1991.
Dan's practical guide to least toxic home pest control. Eugene, OR: Hulogosi
Communications, Inc.

20. Graf, D. 1990.
Pest control you can live with: Safe and effective ways to get rid of common
household pests. Sterling, VA: Earth Stewardship Press.

21. Dryden, M.W. and
A.B. Broce. 1993. Development of a trap for collecting newly emerged
Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) in homes. J. Med. Entomol.
30(5):901-906.

22. Quarles, B.
1993. BioFlea(r) and Vector(r) -- Biological control of fleas. IPM
Practitioner
15(8):18. Berkeley, CA: BioIntegral Resource Center.

23. U.S. Food and
Drug Administration. 1995. FOI summary. NADA 141-026 (original). Washington,
D.C, Mar. 28.

24. U.S. Food and
Drug Administration. 1995. FOI summary. NADA 141-035 (original). Washington,
D.C., Nov. 23.

25. Jesiolowski, J.
and C. Long. 1992. 10 steps to a flea-free life! Organic Gardening
(July/August): 34-38.

Table 1 - Hazards of Flea
Control Pesticides





Insecticide


Class of Chemical


Examples of Adverse Health Effects In Humans
or Pets


Adverse
Effects in Laboratory Studies


Environmental Concerns (See note, p.10)




ALLETHRIN


synthetic pyrethroid


Dogs fed allethrin
over a two-year period suffered from convulsions and died sooner than
unexposed dogs.1


Allethrin is
neurotoxic. In rats and/or mice it causes convulsions, decreased
weight gain,
increased liver, kidney, or thyroid weight, and pneumonia.1


Allethrin is very
highly toxic to most fish, including salmon, rainbow trout, steelhead,
catfish, and perch. It is also very highly toxic to water fleas and
stoneflies (both aquatic invertebrates). It is moderately toxic to bees.1




BORIC
ACID


mineral


Boric acid causes
diseased testicles in dogs.2


Boric acid causes
testicular atrophy, lung hemorrhages, decreased sperm counts, and
decreased
fetal weight in mice. It also increases the frequency of a birth defect in
rabbit fetuses.2


Boric acid is
toxic to plants and has damaged commercially important species. It has the
potential to harm threatened and endangered species.2




CARBARYL


carbamate


Workers exposed to
carbaryl developed abnormal sperm.3 Children exposed to household carbaryl
treatments were more likely to develop childhood brain cancer,4 and
farmers
using carbaryl were more likely to develop a cancer (non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma.).5


Carbaryl is
neurotoxic.6 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes malignant blood
vessel tumors).7 In rats, it causes abnormal sperm,8 fetal loss, and birth
defects.9 It damages hamster chromosomes.10


Carbaryl has been
found in groundwater in six states.11 It is highly toxic to red-winged
blackbirds, “extremely toxic” to earthworms, moderately to highly
toxic to fish, highly toxic to bees, and very highly toxic to water
fleas.12




CHLORPYRIFOS


organophosphate


About 1,000
chlorpyrifos poisonings are reported to poison control centers each
year.13
Undescended testicles have been reported in boys exposed prenatally.14
Also,
a veterinarian’s cat suffered anorexia and profound weakness after a
flea treatment.15


Chlorpyrifos is
neurotoxic.16 In pregnant rats, chlorpyrifos caused fetal death and
reduced
birth weight.17 It also causes genetic damage in many tests, including
tests
using human cells.16


Chlorpyrifos has
contaminated groundwater in nine states.11 It is highly toxic to birds,
moderately toxic to fish, very highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates, very
highly toxic to oysters, and highly toxic to shrimp.18




DIATOMACEOUS
EARTH/ SILICA GEL


mineral


NCAP was unable to
locate any reports of adverse health effects in humans or pets.


EPA classifies
diatomaceous earth and silica gel as “low to moderate” acute toxicity.
According to EPA, lung cancer rates doubled in mice inhaling silica
gel over
a one-year period.19


As naturally
occurring, ubiquitous materials, EPA did not require ecological effects
testing for either diatomaceous earth or silica gel.19




DIAZINON


organophosphate 8


A family became
ill after moving into an apartment that had been treated with diazinon,
Contamination of the apartment, and their symptoms, persisted for 4
months.20
Farmers using diazinon were more likely to develop a cancer
(non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma).5


Diazinon is
neurotoxic.6 Symptoms include headache, nausea, and incoordination. In
rats,
it reduces litter size, weight of pups, and pup survival.21 It damages
chromosomes in human cells.22


Diazinon has
contaminated groundwater in 8 states.11 It is very highly toxic to birds,
fish, and aquatic invertebrates. EPA cancelled some diazinon uses
because of
the large number of documented diazinon-related bird kills.23




DICHLORVOS
(DDVP)


organophosphate


A family had their
home sprayed for fleas with a dichlorvos-containing insecticide, and
experienced headaches, lightheadedness, wheezing, shortness of breath,
nausea, and fatigue. Their symptoms lasted for over six weeks.24


Dichlorvos is
neurotoxic.25 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes stomach
tumors and
leukemia).7 It damages testes in rats and mice, and has caused genetic
damage
in many tests.25


Dichlorvos is
highly toxic to birds, highly or moderately toxic to fish, and very highly
toxic to aquatic insects, other freshwater invertebrates, shrimp and
crab.25




FIPRONIL
(Frontline)


phenylpyrazoles


NCAP was unable to
locate any reports of adverse health effects in humans or pets. This
is a new
chemical and such reports are unlikely to be available.


Fipronil is
neurotoxic.26 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes thyroid
tumors).7
In rats, it causes seizures, decreased weight gain, damage to kidneys, and
alterations in thyroid hormones.26


Fipronil is highly
toxic to upland game birds, rainbow trout, water fleas, and oysters,
and very
highly toxic to bluegill sunfish. An important metabolite is more toxic to
birds and fish than fipronil. It bioaccumulates in fish.26




IMIDACLOPRID
(Advantage)


neonicotinyl


NCAP was unable to
locate any reports of adverse health effects in humans or pets. This
is a new
chemical and such reports are unlikely to be available.


Imidacloprid is
neurotoxic, and causes incoordination and labored breathing.27 It also
causes
thyroid lesions, reduces pup weights, and increases the frequency of a
birth
defect in rats.28


Imidacloprid is
persistent in soil and has “properties and characteristics associated
with chemicals detected in groundwater.”28 It is very highly toxic to
shrimp29 and bees, and is highly toxic to house sparrows.28




LUFENURON
(Program)


drug


Lufenuron
accumulates in fatty tissues of pets given the drug.30 In dogs and
cats, the
following adverse effects have been observed: vomiting, depression,
lethargy,
diarrhea, loss of appetite, and itchy, scratchy skin.31,32


Lufenuron is a
close chemical relative of the growth regulator diflubenzuron,30 which
has a
metabolite that is classified as a carcinogen by EPA.7


Because lufenuron
is a veterinary drug, tests for impacts on nontarget species have not been
done.




METHOPRENE


insect growth regulator


Following a
commercial treatment of a building with a methoprene-containing
insecticide,
six of the people who worked in the building reported headaches, eye and
throat irritation, difficulty breathing, confusion, dizziness, and
nausea.33


Methoprene caused
increased liver weights in test animals and degeneration of parts of the
kidney.34


Methoprene is
“toxic” to amphibians.35 It causes intoxication in birds,35 and
reproductive impairment in ducks.34 It is very highly toxic to water
fleas,
and juvenile shrimp and crabs.34 it is moderately toxic to bluegill
sunfish.34




PERMETHRIN


synthetic pyrethroid


A teacher became
ill with nausea, dizziness, and breathing trouble shortly after she
arrived
at her school for work. The school had been treated the night before
with a
permethrin-containing insecticide.36


Permethrin is a
neurotoxin.37 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes lung cancer and
liver tumors in mice).7 It is embryotoxic in rabbits, and causes liver
damage
in mice.37


Permethrin is very
highly toxic to fish, including salmon, trout, catfish, bass, and bluegill
sunfish. It bioaccumulates in fish. It is also very highly toxic to algae,
crayfish, lobster, shrimp, crab, water fleas, and caddis flies.37




PHOSMET


organophosphate


A dog groomer
became ill with nausea, sweating, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting,
headache, and dizziness 30 minutes after using phosmet. A woman developed
cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea after playing with her dog who had been
bathed
in a flea dip.38


Phosmet is a
neurotoxin.39 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes liver tumors in
mice).7 Embryos from rats exposed to phosmet during pregnancy
developed brain
damage.39


Phosmet is very
toxic to bees. It is very highly toxic to red winged blackbirds, and
highly
toxic to pheasants. It causes reproductive problems in birds. It is
highly or
very highly toxic to fish.39




PIPERONYL
BUTOXIDE


synergist


A man sprayed
furniture with a piperonyl butoxide-containing insecticide. He was wearing
rubber gloves and a mask. He developed burning of the nose and mouth,
tingling of the arms, and a severe headache. Symptoms persisted two
days.33


Piperonyl butoxide
is classified by EPA as a carcinogen (it causes liver tumors).7 It also
causes lung lesions, hemorrhages, and anemia in rats.40 It decreases the
survival of mouse pups.41


Piperonyl butoxide
is highly toxic to tadpoles and water fleas. It is moderately toxic to
oyster
larvae, shrimp, and many fish, including rainbow trout, goldfish, carp,
yellow perch, and bluegill sunfish.42




PROPOXUR


carbamate


A veterinary
technician who was accidentally splashed with a pesticide containing
propoxur
had symptoms including headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, difficulty
breathing, and chemical pneumonia. The technician was hospitalized for 13
days.43


Propoxur is
neurotoxic.44 In rats, it causes bladder cancer.45 It also causes
reproductive problems, including reduced litter size, low birth
weight, and
impaired nervous systems in the pups.44


Propoxur is very
highly toxic to mourning doves and house finches, and highly toxic to
mallard
ducks, pheasants, and quail. It is very highly toxic to fathead
minnows and
highly toxic to honey bees.44




PYRETHRINS


botanical insecticide


A 37-year-old
woman developed severe shortness of breath after bathing her dog with a
pyrethrin shampoo. Her heart stopped and she died after being taken to the
hospital.46 Farmers who applied pyrethrins increased their risk of
developing
leukemia four-fold.47


Pyrethrins are
neurotoxic.48 They also can produce skin irritation, itching, and
burning. In
rats, they cause fetal loss49 and low birth weights.48


Pyrethrins are
“extremely toxic” to fish such as bluegill sunfish and lake
trout. They are also “toxic” to bees.48




PYRIPROXYFEN
(Nylar)


insect growth regulator


NCAP was unable to
locate any reports of adverse health effects in humans or pets. This
is a new
chemical and such reports are unlikely to be available.


In a chronic
feeding study, pyriproxyfen caused a decrease in normal weight gain.
Reduced
weight gain also occurred in a study of reproductive effects, along with
toxicity to the pups.50


Pyriproxyfen is
very highly toxic to water fleas.51 It also causes deformities in
dragonflies,52 prevents juvenile ladybugs from developing into
adults,53 and
suppresses egg hatch of a beneficial bug.53




RESMETHRIN


synthetic pyrethroid


A custodian at a
school developed a headache, a choking feeling, tightness in his
chest, and a
scratchy throat from a nearby resmethrin application which drifted to the
area where he was working.36


Resmethrin is
neurotoxic, causing tremors and rapid breathing. In rats, it reduces
weight
gain, increases kidney weight, increases the number of stillborn pups, and
reduces pup weight.54


Resmethrin is very
highly acutely toxic to fish, including carp, killifish, rainbow
trout, coho
salmon, steelhead, perch, and bluegill fish, It is also very highly
toxic to
some aquatic arthropods.54




TETRACHLORVINPHOS


organophosphate


Adverse effects
were observed in dogs fed tetrachlorvinphos in chronic toxicity studies: a
decreased red blood cell count, an increased white blood cell count,
increased prostate weight, increased liver weight, and increased kidney
weight.55


Tetrachlorvinphos
is neurotoxic.55 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes liver and
thyroid tumors).7 It causes fetal loss in pregnant rabbits, and damages
hamster chromosomes.55


Tetrachlorvinphos
is highly toxic to fish (trout, sunfish, and catfish) and bees. It is very
highly toxic to water fleas and shrimp.55




TETRAMETHRIN


synthetic pyrethroid


A child entered
her house to use the bathroom while her parent was fogging with
tetramethrin-containing foggers. The parent later discovered the child
unconscious and not breathing on the bathroom floor. The child required
artificial respiration.56


Tetramethrin is
neurotoxic.57 EPA classifies it as a carcinogen (it causes testicular
tumors).7 In rats, it reduces pituitary, thyroid, and spleen weight,
inhibits
ovulation, and reduces fetal growth.57 Environmental Concerns (See note,
p.10)


Tetramethrin is
very highly or highly toxic to fish, including bluegill sunfish, rainbow
trout, and killifish. It is also very highly toxic to water fleas. It is
toxic to bees.57




References for Table 1


1. United Nations
Environment Prog., International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1989.
Allethrins: Allethrin, d-allethrin, bioallethrin, and s-bioallethrin.
Environmental Health Criteria 87. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

2. U.S. EPA.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1993. Reregistration
eligibility
decision (RED): Boric acid and its sodium salts. Washington, D.C., Sept.

3. Wyrobeck, A.J. et
al. 1981. Sperm shape abnormalities in carbaryl-exposed employees. Envir.
Health. Persp. 40:255-265.

4. Davis, J.R. et
al. 1993. Family pesticide use and childhood brain cancer. Arch. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 24:87-92.

5. Cantor, K.P. et
al. 1992. Pesticides and other agricultural risk factors for non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res. 52:2447-2455.

6. Morgan, D.P.
1989. Recognition and management of pesticide poisonings. Fourth ed.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticide Programs. Health Effects
Div.

7. U.S. EPA. 1997.
Office of Pesticide Programs list of chemicals evaluated for
carcinogenic potential.
Memo from W.L. Burnam, Health Effects Div., to Health Effects Div. Branch
Chiefs, et al. Washington, D.C., Feb. 19.

8. U.S. EPA. Office
of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1980. Carbaryl decision document. Pp.
45-46, Dec.

9. Mather, A. and P.
Bhatnagar. 1991. A teratogenic study of carbaryl in Swiss albino mice. Fd.
Chem. Toxicol. 29:629-632.

10. Calif. Dept. of
Food and Agriculture. Medical Toxicology Br. 1990. Summary of toxicology
data:
Carbaryl. Sacramento, CA., July 31.

11. U.S. EPA.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1992. Pesticides in groundwater
database: A compilation of monitoring studies: 1971-1991. Washington, D.C.,
Sept.

12. United Nations
Environment Program, International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1994.
Carbaryl. Environmental Health Criteria 153. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

13. U.S. EPA. Office
of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1997. Review of chlorpyrifos
poisoning data. Memo from J. Blondell, Health Effects Div., to L. Probst,
Special Review and Reregistration Div. Washington, D.C., Jan. 14.

14. Sherman, J.
1996. Chlorpyrifos (Dursban)- associated birth defects: Report of four
cases.
Arch. Environ. Health 51(1):5-8.

15. Levy, J.K. 1993.
Chronic chlorpyrifos toxicosis in a cat. JAVMA 203(12):1682-1686.

16. U.S. Dept. of
Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Agency for Toxic
Substances
and Disease Registry. 1995. Toxicological profile for chlorpyrifos. (Draft.)

17. Muto, M.A. et
al. 1992. Embryotoxicity and neurotoxicity in rats associated with prenatal
exposure to Dursban. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 34(6):498-501.

18. U.S. EPA. 1984.
Pesticide factsheet: Chlopyrifos. No. 37. Washington, D.C., Sept. 30.

19. U.S. EPA.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1991. Reregistration
Eligibility
Decision (RED): Silicon dioxide and silica gel. Washington, D.C., Sept.

20. Richter, et al.
1992. Illness and excretion of organophosphorous metabolites four months
after
household pest extermination. Arch. Environ. Health 47(2):135-138.

21. Calif. Dept. of
Food and Agriculture. Medical Toxicology Branch. 1990. Summary of
toxicological
data. Diazinon. Sacramento, CA, Feb. 27.

22. Sobti. R.C. et
al. 1982. Cytokinetic and cytogenetic effects of some agricultural
chemicals on
human lymphoid cells in vitro: Organophosphates. Mut. Res. 102:89-102.

23. U.S. EPA. Office
of Pesticide Prog. 1986. Pesticide fact sheet: Diazinon. Washington, D.C.,
Sept.

24. Markowitz, S.B.
1992. Poisoning of an urban family due to misapplication of household
organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Clin. Toxicol. 30(20:295-303.

25. United Nations
Environment Program, International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1989.
Dichlorvos. Environmental Health Criteria 79. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

26. U.S. EPA. Office
of Pesticide Prog. 1996. New pesticide fact sheet: Fipronil. Washington,
D.C.,
May.

27. U.S. EPA. Office
of Pesticide Programs. 1996. Imidacloprid. Evaluation of product
labeling data
submitted and identification of outstanding toxicology data
requirements. Memo
from M.S. Ottley, Health Effects Div., to P. Jenkins, Registration Div.
Washington, D.C., Mar. 5.

28. U.S. EPA. Office
of Pesticide Programs. 1994. Pesticide fact sheet: Imidacloprid. Washington,
D.C., Mar. 18.

29. U.S. EPA. 1994.
Registration for imidacloprid (NTN 33983). Memo from S.L. Johnson,
registration
Division, to D.D. Campt, Office of Pesticide Programs. Washington, D.C.,
Mar.
10.

30. Adams, H.R.
(ed.) 1995. Veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics. Ames, IA: Iowa State
University. Pp. 989, 998-999.

31. U.S. Food and
Drug Admin. 1996. FOI summary NADA 141-035. Washington, D.C., Dec. 31.

32. U.S. Food and
Drug Admin. 1996. FOI summary NADA 141-018. Washington, D.C., Dec. 31.

33. Washington State
Dept. of Health. 1992. Pesticide incident reporting and tracking review
panel. Annual
report 1991. Olympia, WA.

34. U.S. EPA.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1991. Reregistration
Eligibility
Document (RED): Methoprene. Washington, D.C., Mar.

35. Extension
Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). 1994. Methoprene pesticide information
profile.
May.

36. Calif. EPA.
Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. Case reports by the California pesticide
illness
surveillance program in which health effects were attributed to exposure to
pesticide in schools, 1992-1994. Unpublished.

37. United Nations
Environment Program, International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1990.
Permethrin. Environmental Health Criteria 94. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

38. Oregon Health
Div. 1989. Pesticide alert: Poisoning from flea control products containing
phosmet. Commun. Disease Summ. 38(10). May.

39. Extension
Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). 1993. Phosmet pesticide information profile.
Sept.

40. Takahashi, O. et
al. 1994. Chronic toxicity studies of piperonyl butoxide in F344 rats:
Induction of hepatocellular carcinoma. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 22:293-303.

41. Tanaka, T., O.
Takahashi, and S. Oishi. 1992. Reproductive and neurobehavioral effects in
three-generation study of piperonyl butoxide administered to mice. Fd. Chem.
Toxic. 30:1015- 1019.

42. U.S. EPA.
Undated. Database of ecological effects tests. Unpubl. Maintained by B.
Montague, Office of Pesticide Prog. Washington, D.C.

43. Sidhu, K.S. and
M.B. Collisi. 1989. A case of accidental exposure to a veterinary
insecticide
product formulation. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 31(1):63- 64.

44. Extension
Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). 1993. Propoxur pesticide information profile.
Sept.

45. U.S. EPA. Office
of Drinking Water. 1988. Health advisory: (Baygon) propoxur. Washington,
D.C.,
Aug.

46. Wax, P.M. and
R.S. Hoffman. 1994. Fatality associated with inhalation of a pyrethrin
shampoo.
Clin. Toxicol. 32(4):457-460.

47. Brown, L.M. et
al. 1990. Pesticide exposures and other agricultural risk factors for
leukemia
among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res. 50:6585-6591.

48. Extension
Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). 1994. Pyrethrins pesticide information
profile.
Mar.

49. Khera, K.R., C.
Whalen, and G. Angers. 1981. Teratogenicity study on pyrethrins and rotenone
(of natural origin) and ronnel in pregnant rats. Teratol. 23(2):45A-46A.
(Abst.)

50. U.S. EPA. 1997.
Pyriproxyfen; Pesticide tolerances for emergency exemptions. Fed. Reg.
62(143):39962-39967. July 25.

51. Trayler, K.M.
and J.A. Davis. 1996. Sensitivity of Daphnia carinata sensu lato to the
insect
growth regulator, pyriproxyfen. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 33:154-156.

52. Schaefer, C.H.
and T. Miura. 1990. Chemical persistence and effects of S-31183, 2-
[methyl-2-(4-phenoxyphenoxy)ethoxy]- pyridine, on aquatic organisms in field
tests. J. Econ. Entomol. 83(5):1768-1776.

53. Mendel, Z., D.
Blumberg, and I. Ishaaya. 1994. Effects of some insect growth regulators on
natural enemies of scale insects (Hom: Coccoidea). Entomophaga
39(2):199-209.

54. United Nations
Environment Program, International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1989.
Resmethrin. Environmental Health Criteria 92. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

55. U.S. EPA.
Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1995. Reregistration
Eligibility
Decision (RED): Tetrachlorvinphos. Washington, D.C., Sept.

56. Washington Dept.
of Health. 1993. Pesticide incident reporting and tracking review panel.
Annual
report 1992. Olympia, WA.

57. United Nations
Environment Program, International Labor Org., and World Health Org. 1990.
Tetramethrin. Environmental Health Criteria 98. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

Note


This table uses EPA acute toxicity
designations based on the median lethal dose (LD50) or concentration (LC50).
Both the LD50 and the LC50 indicate the amount of a pesticide needed to
cause
death of half of a population of test animals. Quotation marks are used
where
these toxicity designations are unavailable.


For birds, a pesticide is very highly toxic
if the LD50 is less than 10 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) of the bird's
weight or the dietary LC50 (concentration in food) is less than 50 parts per
million (ppm). A pesticide is highly toxic if the LD50 is between 10 and 50
mg/kg or the dietary LC50 is between 50 and 500 ppm. For aquatic animals, a
pesticide is very highly toxic if the LC50 (concentration in water) is less
than 0.1 ppm, highly toxic if the LC50 is between 0.1 and 1 ppm, and
moderately
toxic if the LC50 is between 1 and 10 ppm. For bees, a pesticide is highly
toxic if the LD50 is less than 2 micrograms per bee and moderately toxic
if the
LD50 is between 2 and 11 micrograms per bee.


source: http://www.pesticide.org/factsheets.html
22oct01

 




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